翻开一本灭绝动物图集，你能看到许多长相奇特的动物：身怀巨钳的红色奇虾、长着螺旋状牙齿的蓝色旋齿鲨、两对翅膀的亮黑色小盗龙等。在感叹它们的神奇外貌的同时，你有没有想过，它们真的长这样吗？科学家们怎么知道的呢？

从化石中寻找色彩

奇虾的大钳子、旋齿鲨的螺旋齿和小盗龙的两对翅膀虽然很不可思议，不过这确实是有事实依据的，毕竟这些结构都栩栩如生地保存在化石中。但是，化石都是灰扑扑的，科学家们怎么从中看出了奇虾的红色、旋齿鲨的蓝色和小盗龙的“五彩斑斓的黑色”呢？

这些远古的灭绝动物，我们自然是找不到绘画作品和影像资料了，那么只能直接参考现代动物。比如现代鲨鱼多是灰蓝色的，这是它们在海洋中的保护色，因此科学家推测旋齿鲨是蓝色的。奇虾是虾蟹类的祖先，想象图中常将它绘成帝王蟹的颜色——红色。当然，这种方法是不那么准确的，直到本世纪初，科学家们才找到了推测古生物肤色的靠谱方法。

如果问你，植物的叶子为什么是绿色的？你可能马上会告诉我，因为它们具有叶绿体。动物虽然没有叶绿体，但是却有另一种色素体——黑素体。2006年，英国布里斯托大学的生物学家雅各布·文特尔首次发现了这种色素体。在研究一块2亿岁的乌贼墨囊化石时，文特尔看到乌贼细胞中有一个个含有许多黑色颗粒的液泡，他将之命名为黑素体。这些黑素体中装的就是乌贼的墨汁，因为黑素体的存在，整个墨囊都呈黑色。文特尔又观察了许多鸟类的羽毛，同样在细胞中找到了类似的液泡，经过认真观察，文特尔将黑素体分为两种：一种为卵圆形，制造黑色色素；一种为球形，制造铁锈红色的色素。在鸟羽中，这些不同的黑色素相互混合，最终调配成灰、棕、白等颜色。

既然两亿年前的乌贼化石中还能清楚看到黑素体的结构，那么其他动物的化石是不是也能看到黑素体呢？答案是肯定的，2010年，包括文特尔在内的多位古生物学家首次在中华龙鸟（一种小型食肉恐龙）的羽毛化石上发现了黑素体。为了还原中华龙鸟的颜色，科学家们需要在动物化石的头部、背部、腹部、四肢等各个部位取样，分析黑素体的形状和各处的分布密度等，然后再与现存鸟类的黑素体结构进行对比，如果吻合比较多就是颜色大多一致。比如，现代鸟类的黑色羽毛中的黑素体是长轴黑素体，如果化石中某处的羽毛也具有这样的黑素体，就说明该部位羽毛的颜色跟现代鸟类的黑羽类似。这样，科学家们最终还原出中华龙鸟的样子，它的毛发呈现粟色或红棕色，尾巴则是橙白两色相间，整体“肤色”与松鼠类似。

除了黑素体，动物体内还有一些其他的色素，比如血红素和胡萝卜素等，可是这些色素没有专门的细胞结构储存，在化石形成过程中很容易降解，而且一旦降解就几乎无法复原，所以在化石中几乎看不到这些彩色色素。不过，科学家们发现，很多色素都与某些金属原子有关，比如血红素的中心元素是铁，合成真黑色素的酶需要铜元素等。因此如果在化石中发现了相关元素，也可以据此推测该部位的体色。

“五彩斑斓的黑”是什么黑

其实，如果你认真观察，你会发现生物的体色并不是单一的颜色。在光线照射下，生物体色往往是深浅不一的，这是因为，体色并不完全由色素决定，还与身体结构有关。不同的身体部位的微结构会影响光线的穿透路径和反射程度，过滤或反射特定波长的光线，这样我们就会看到不同的色彩。科学家们将这种由于身体结构不同而产生的颜色称为结构色，结构色比色素色的色彩要鲜艳和丰富很多。

甲虫是结构色的典型代表，几十只甲虫放在一处，都几乎找不到颜色相同的两只，让人不敢相信这些“肤色”也是由几种相同的色素产生的。爱尔兰考克大学的古生物学家玛利亚·麦克纳马拉及其团队研究了约600种不同昆虫的化石，发现这些昆虫的外骨骼（昆虫特有的一种覆盖全身的坚硬的外部结构）是由很多仅100纳米厚的薄层堆叠而成的。这些薄层对光线的反射程度不同，层数越多，所显示出的颜色越鲜亮。因此，尽管色素组成相同，甲虫的肤色也不会一模一样。

小盗龙是多彩结构色的另一个代表。在小盗龙的化石中，来自北京大学、美国得克萨斯大学等多国的研究者们也只找到了黑素体这一种色素，但是他们认为，小盗龙的“黑皮肤”不是单纯的黑色，而是一种能反射出多彩色泽的“五彩斑斓的黑色”，这得益于黑素体的纳米结构。

研究者们从小盗龙的各个部位取了26个样品，扫描得到了这些部位的黑素体的结构和分布图，然后将它们与现代鸟类的彩虹色羽毛的黑素体进行对比。数据分析表明，彩虹色羽毛部位的黑素体比黑灰色羽毛的黑素体要更加细长且排布更加规律，而小盗龙的26个样本中，排除没有检测到黑素体的7个样本，剩余的19个样本中有13个都具有与彩虹色羽毛的黑素体相同的形态和排布方式。据此，研究者们得出了结论，小盗龙的黑色羽毛在不同的光照角度下会折射出蓝、绿、红、黄等多种色彩。

肤色不同，生境不同

看到这里，想必你也看出来了，推测古生物的肤色确实是一个困难的工作，而且很可能因为结构不全而得到错误的答案，那么有什么方法能验证一下结论吗？

在对现代生物的研究中，我们发现，生物的肤色与生境有很大的关系，比如两极地区白色的北极熊、热带草原上棕色的非洲狮等。因此，可以认为，古生物的生境和肤色也有关系，两者可以相互验证。

2016年9月，英国布里斯托大学的研究人员重现了鹦鹉嘴龙的肤色。它的面部颜色较深，背部为深褐色，腹部肤色逐渐变浅，前肢有黑色斑点，后背皮肤有深浅不一的条纹。生物学家们称这种体色分布为“反荫蔽”。许多现代动物都具有这种体色分布，比如鱼类常常具有背部颜色深、腹部颜色浅的特点，这样从上往下看，深色的背部与海水融为一体，从下往上看，浅色的腹部又与天空颜色相近，不易被发现。与之相似，生活在光线向四面八方反射的环境中的生物，也具有这样的体色，比如森林中的各种鸟类。据此，研究人员推测，鹦鹉嘴龙也生活在森林中，反荫蔽的肤色有利于它们在森林中“隐身”，躲开凶猛的食肉恐龙，这也与它们的“小个子”和植食性特征相符。

与鹦鹉嘴龙相反，颜色更加鲜亮的中华龙鸟则可能生活在树木低矮、植被稀疏的河流附近。英国布里斯托尔大学的研究团队在重建了中华龙鸟的肤色模型后，进行了光照实验。结果发现，在30°的斜射光线、直射光线和漫射光线三种光照状态的比较中，斜射光线下中华龙鸟的肤色变化最不明显，隐蔽效果最好，而漫射光线则最不利于中华龙鸟“隐身”。因此，研究者推测中华龙鸟应生活在树木不那么密集的水边。在中华龙鸟的胃中发现的未消化的蜥蜴也能证明这一点，这种蜥蜴与现代生活在水边的蜥蜴形态结构很相似。

我们没人亲眼见过亿年前灭绝的古生物，它们到底是什么样子很难说清楚。但是，随着多种技术方法的进步和协同运用，我们对它们的认识必将越来越准确。

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