：锁相（凝聚态物理学博士，科研工）

贝尔实验室，由AT&T公司于1925年成立，以电话发明人贝尔命名。贝尔实验室“只”出了12个诺贝尔奖获得者，不及卡文迪许实验室的一 半，但贝尔实验室对普通人的意义恐怕远远超过了卡文迪许——晶体管、传真机、手机、太阳能电池、UNIX、C语言，这些都来自贝尔实验室，并影响了现代人 的生活。对于能看到这篇文章的诸位，我只想介绍什么是晶体管。

贝尔实验室

晶体管，1947年发明于贝尔实验室，它既是贝尔实验室最大的成就，也应该是上世纪最重要的发明之一。晶体管是一种基于半导体物理的器件，可以用电信号改变另一个电信号，是现在一切电子器件的基础。由晶体管而计算器，由计算器而计算机，我们才进入了信息时代。

电子电路里的逻辑门大约由20个晶体管组成，上世纪50年代的分立晶体管计算机大约由2000个晶体管组成。70年代后计算机的基本计算功能被集成 于一个叫central processing unit的模块，即被我们熟知的CPU。1978年著名的CPU、Intel8086有3E4个晶体管，1982年的80286有1E5个晶体 管，1985年的80386有3E5个晶体管，1989年的80486有1E6个晶体管，1993年的Pentium有3E6个晶体管，2008年的 Core i7有7E8个晶体管，2012年已经有5E9个晶体管的CPU了。集成电路上晶体管总数每两年翻一番，也被称为摩尔定律。如果关注8086→ 286→386→486→Pentium的发展史，我们会注意到一个有意思的现象，这些著名CPU的晶体管总数在对数空间接近等间距：如果CPU性能差别 不大，新产品将不被重视，如果CPU性能增加过多，商业公司的研发投入又不能利益最大化。

纵轴为CPU的晶体管数目，横轴为时间。（图片来源：wiki）

包括晶体管的发明者在内，12个贝尔实验室的人员获得了诺贝尔奖。这里面包括了晶体管、感光器件CCD这样的重要发明，也包括了电子衍射实验、分数 量子霍尔效应、冷原子中的波色凝聚、宇宙微波背景辐射这些方向各异的基础物理。电子衍射实验证明了量子力学关于物质波动性的基本假设，分数量子霍尔效应发 现了分数电荷，冷原子中的波色凝聚用新技术研究量子力学，宇宙微波背景辐射是大爆炸理论的实验支持。前文提到的重要理论物理学家安德森也曾工作于贝尔实验 室。1968年和1983年，贝尔实验室的工作人员还获得了图灵奖，UNIX是后者的部分获奖原因。

在技术发明方面，贝尔实验室的网站把以下10个方面是作为他们最重要的贡献：

1.数据网络（主要是DSL网络）；

2.晶体管；

3.手机（1947年就提出这个概念，1970年已经在芝加哥铺设了商业手机网络）；

4.太阳能电池（1954年第一次实用太阳能发电）；

5.激光（除了可以用于做报告时的激光笔外，还用于打印机、条形码扫描、医学手术中）；

6.数字通讯技术（用于通话系统）；

7.通讯卫星（1962年，第一颗轨道通讯卫星Telstar I被建造和发射）；

8.按键电话（随着现在触摸屏的普及，以后可能会跟更老的拨号式电话一起进入博物馆了）；

9.UNIX系统和C语言（统计语言R的前身S也是来自贝尔实验室）；

10.数字信号处理器（digital signal processor，多媒体核心部件，也用于无线电话、答录机等）。

更老式的拨号式电话（图片来源: http://www.howitworksdaily.com/history/rotary-dial-telephones/）

贝尔实验室的巴丁于1956和1972年两次获得诺奖，他是唯一一位两次获物理诺奖的科学家，然而，他并不是贝尔实验室如此特殊的原因。根据 Andrew Gelman发表于“physicsworld”的一则书评，他认为贝尔实验室特殊的原因在于，贝尔实验室的巅峰时期，在给顶尖科学家们提供了一个好科研 环境的同时，还提供了高于平常大学教授薪水的收入；此外，贝尔实验室的所在地没有什么好玩的，科学家的精力只能集中在工作上。翻译他的一句原话：“在40 年代到70年代贝尔实验室最成功的时间里，在那里工作就象在大学里面工作。除了收入高一些、仪器好一些、车间能满足你所有设计需求、不用教书、并且不用花 时间申请科研经费。” Andrew Gelman曾工作于贝尔实验室，这样的说法听起来像是在假装不经意地炫耀。

辉煌的贝尔实验室名字依然在，但是曾经的传奇已经结束了。1996年，AT&T将贝尔实验室归于Alcatel-Lucent旗下，重命名 为Alcatel-Lucent Bell Lab。可是现在的贝尔实验室，基础科学、物理和数学分支已经被取消了。换言之，贝尔实验室为人类作出重要贡献的领域被阉割了。短期的逐利行为无法容忍从 1947年晶体管发明到信息时代之间的漫长等待，纯粹的商业行为也难以大幅度长时间支持信息理论、电子衍射、分数量子霍尔效应、冷原子中的波色凝聚、宇宙 微波背景辐射这类基础科研，或者称之为“自由”研究。现在的贝尔实验室关注产生了多少专利、多少专利已经被应用，以前的辉煌只是现在母公司所拥有的一种广 告效应。

Alcatel-Lucent解散了基础研究方向，但是它还是留下了一批最核心、最重要的科学家，（秘密地或者低调地）维持着少量基础科研课题组运 转。如果将来再有来自贝尔实验室的诺贝尔奖获得者，我不会感到奇怪，但是我不期待贝尔实验室在现在的运营模式下对物理研究有新一波的冲击。

说明

摩尔定律的另一个表达：计算机的计算性能每18个月翻倍。计算性能既取决于晶体管数目，又取决于晶体管性能。人们在提高晶体管总数的同时，也在提升单个晶体管的性能。

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and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .85);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .65);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .55);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 255, 255, .35);--weui-FG-3: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-FG-4: rgba(255, 255, 255, .15);--weui-FG-5: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-BRAND: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .6);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 255, 255, .3);--weui-FG-3: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-FG-4: rgba(255, 255, 255, .15);--weui-FG-5: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-BRAND: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) 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59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--discussInput-BG: rgba(255, 255, 255, .03)}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--nickName-FG: #959595}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .6);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 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.05)}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--appmsgExtra-BG: #121212}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) :root{--appmsgPageGap: 20px;--appmsgPageBottomGap: 40px}}:root{--articleFontsize: 17px}:root{--sab: env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}:root{--wxBorderAvatarRatio: 3}:root{--discussPageGap: 20px}:root{--immersive-safe-bottom: env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}:root{--appmsgPageGap: 20px;--appmsgPageBottomGap: 40px}*{margin:0;padding:0}.rich_media_content *{max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box!important;-webkit-box-sizing:border-box!important;word-wrap:break-word!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not([data-weui-theme=light]) .rich_media_content img:not(.wx_img_placeholder){filter:brightness(.8)}}

div.autoTypeSetting24psection > p,div.autoTypeSetting24psection > section{margin-bottom: 24px;}