正如《哈佛中国史5:元与明》的著者、也是该部套书的主编卜正民所述,他亲自撰写的这一部中华帝国史与前后的几部历史书存在较大的差别,他说:“我所写的元明卷与其他几卷有一个显著不同,这种不同是在整个系列的编纂后期才逐渐显露出来的,所以该特征在其他几卷中并没有出现。”(中文版总序)。如果说另外五本哈佛史的著者谨小慎微、恭恭敬敬地陈述历史的话,那么,卜正民撰写的“元明”卷的差异性,在于他找到了一个横贯元与明时代的巨大的隐性的操控者,这个操控者不是中华帝国的体制传承、不是元明帝国的改朝换代、也不是华夏土地上帝国的地理变迁,而是笼盖了“元与明”时代的气候变化,这就是书中归纳为“小冰河期”的重大气象特征。
在其他几部历史书中,很少有独立地把“气候”提拎出来,作为人事社会变迁的一个重要影响元素。在本卷中,对“小冰河期”予以特别的交待:“元明两代正值气候异常时期,历史学家称之为小冰河期。”(P49)
由此归纳道:“我不由得想到应该把元明两朝的政治运势与其气候变化对照看看:忽必烈汗迁都北京正值小冰河期的开始;1366年,元期衰亡,处于小冰河期第一个阶段的极寒期;1644年,明朝灭亡,正值这400年历史上记载的最漫长的严寒期的尾声。气温当然不是解释这些重大历史事件的唯一因素,但任何解释肯定绕不过它。”(P51)
明朝建立的时期,正是西方中世纪的结束,十四、五世纪的欧洲正跌入到最黑暗的低谷,而相比之下,大明王朝正在元朝的废墟上开启了盛世时代。书中在引述马可·波罗与朝鲜官员崔溥分别对元与明的一片极度富饶、繁华景象的描述,可以与当时的西方正处于中世纪黑暗期的尾声形成鲜明的对照。而小冰河期这一来自于西方历史的概念,用在东方的历史上,以意图阐述东方帝国的节点,可能会产生某种不适应,甚至在元明卷中,一方面竭力去阐述气候对社会、经济生活的影响,但是,很清醒地意识到:“气候本身并不能解释元朝的兴起与明朝的衰落,更不足以解释一个王朝的建立和另一个王朝衰落之间所发生的一切” (P251),不过,在这一清醒认识的基础上,心里始终挥之不去的是如果排除了气象因素,“就无法充分理解这四个世纪的历史。”(P252)。因为把气候作为它“洞穿”元明两个朝代的更为宏大的力量,因此,书中并没有像其它几卷的哈佛史那样,从中华帝国的地理方位角度去解析历史的变迁与接续,而是环绕着气象这一个核心焦点,罗列了各种气象灾难来透视笼罩在元明帝国之上的超自然力量,实际上是把其它几卷中几乎很少涉及的气象因素作为侧重焦点来予以关注,这无疑开启了对我们熟知的历史不一样的新鲜解说空间,也使元与明的历史能够在一个气象模型中得到拥有共性基础的解读。
当然,在庞大的气象背景下控制的元与明朝的人事特点,并没有作出忽略。指出:“元明史上的两大主题——独裁制和商品化,在宋代尚不见其踪影,而到了元明时期,它们在质和量上已发生了飞跃性的变化。”(P21)。专制统治是中华帝国的一个不可忽略的体制基础,但实施有效的专制统治,并不是从中华帝国开初之年就是一蹴而就的,这其中经过了复杂的嬗变,也付出了国破山河在、帝国江山分崩离析的非常代价,而中华帝国的专制统治特征,就是权力逐渐向皇权集中,一直到最后一个皇朝清朝达到了最完善的程度,但这也意味着这一体制已经走上了最终的末路。因此,在书中,围绕中华帝制的嬗变史,对元明两朝的体制进行了综述性的分析。引述了20世纪杰出的明史专家牟复礼的研究成果,认为“宋代是中国专制统治的滥觞期”,后来的“所谓的蒙古的‘野蛮化’将帝制中‘大部分对皇权的限制都摧毁了’,因此,为明代的专制统治开辟了道路。”(P83)认为:“中国政治转向君主独裁,肇始于蒙元,但却是洪武与永乐二帝真正把儒家核心思想中强调义务和互重的君臣之道剔除出去,使明王朝失去了恢复帝制旧法的思想源泉。”(P90)。
这种独裁制度在体制上就是确立皇权一枝独大的至高无上地位,将中央权力集于皇帝一身,杜绝任何力量对皇权的干预与影响,取消宰相制度,设立内阁大学士,这样,“皇帝一人权掌天下”,这一专制体制的优劣可谓是一目了然的,皇权纵揽一切,防止了地方势力觊觎皇权的挑战,使得中华帝国再也不见了汉代后期军阀林立、唐代藩镇独大的状况,而正因为中央集权的失控,导致了汉代之后是长达三百年的混乱时期,唐朝灭亡之后接踵而至的也是墙头变幻霸王旗的五代乱局,这都可视着中央政府无力控制局面导致的失控状态。但是,中华帝国的独裁体制在负面效应上同样是有目共睹,这就是“政府运作的好坏,端视人君的智慧和能力”(P87),这成为中华帝国身陷其中、解也解不开的沉重的怪圈,直到大清灭亡,终结了帝国的体制脉线,也使中华帝国走向了崭新的发展模式。从中我们可以看出,哈佛史六个分券里,始终有一个探讨的方向,就是中华帝国的生成机制与传承嬗变的问题,这一问题,是回答中国历史走向的一个重要因素,而哈佛史在当初确立编纂要求时就明确让编撰者“仔细考虑在他们所写的那个时代生活到底意味着什么。”(中文版总序),而中华帝制的内在脉络,无疑是决定过往的中国社会的根本原因的重要方面。
而值得注意的是,西方学者在考察中国历史的时候,始终将东方古国的历史变迁放在全球史的范围内进行考量。更多的情况下,这是思维习惯决定了的一种潜意识作为,如本书从小冰河期去考察元明史,就是对西方历史研究中的一种模型的移用,但我们还应该看到,这更是西方学者在更大的社会背景下洞观中国历史的有意选择。在元明卷中,分别从两个方向,去探讨了元与明朝两个朝代与世界沟通与构连的两个区域:在13世纪末到14世纪末,蒙元帝国“横跨草原,向西拓展至波斯和欧洲”,并形成了一个“发端于元朝的大陆型世界经济体,”而到了明朝,认为出现了一个“以南海为中心的海上世界经济体”,这个经济体将明朝与进出印度洋和横跨太平洋的各贸易体系连接在一起。“这两个不同的世界以不同的方式将中国纳入其中。”(P251)。这样在书中专门出现了一个“南海”的章回,专门探讨明朝在全球范围内的经济面向问题,不可谓不是的一种恰中肯綮、妙臻精微的独到发现,也给这部哈佛史注入了新鲜的予人以启发的历史识见与视野。
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#74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-BRAND: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root,body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body{--appmsgExtra-BG: #F7F7F7}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root[data-weui-theme=dark],body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body[data-weui-theme=dark]{--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .6);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 255, 255, .3);--weui-FG-3: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-FG-4: rgba(255, 255, 255, .15);--weui-FG-5: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-BRAND: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root[data-weui-theme=dark],body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body[data-weui-theme=dark]{--appmsgExtra-BG: #121212}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){body:not(.pages_skin_pc)body:not(.pages_skin_pc){background:var(--weui-BG-2)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .85);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .65);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .55);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 255, 255, .35);--weui-FG-3: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-FG-4: rgba(255, 255, 255, .15);--weui-FG-5: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-BRAND: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, 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rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--appmsgExtra-BG: #121212}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not([data-weui-theme=light]).my_comment_empty_data{background-color:#111}}body,.wx-root{--weui-BG-6: rgba(0, 0, 0, .05);--weui-ACTIVE-MASK: rgba(0, 0, 0, .05)}body,.wx-root{--weui-REDORANGE: #ff6146;--weui-BG-0: #ededed;--weui-BG-1: #f7f7f7;--weui-BG-2: #fff;--weui-BG-3: #f7f7f7;--weui-BG-4: #4c4c4c;--weui-BG-5: 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